Today, Ukrainian literature is experiencing a new stage of renaissance, paradoxically fueled by the existential threat of Russian aggression. As people reconnect and affirm their Ukrainian identity, the literary sphere flourishes, gaining prospects for further development and international recognition.
Writers such as Serhiy Zhadan, Oksana Zabuzhko, Kateryna Kalytko, Halyna Kruk, Yuriy Andruhovych, or Andriy Liubka have become iconic figures in modern Ukrainian literature, with their works translated into numerous languages.
Understanding this revival, however, necessitates recognising its roots in the late 1980s and early 1990s, when the ban on publishing works by the "Executed Renaissance" writers was lifted, laying the foundation for today's literary landscape.
Ukrainian literature has followed an evolutionary path to reach its current stage of development despite various challenges. A crucial aspect of Ukrainian literary history is its linguistic diversity, which reflects the multifaceted context of its evolution beyond mere Russian influences.
Our exploration of Ukrainian literature's linguistic diversity begins with the Ukrainian language itself. Old Ukrainian, the precursor to modern Ukrainian, served as the medium for the earliest literary works.
Its origins can be traced back to Church Slavonic, the language of religious texts that initiated the writing tradition in Kyivan Rus - a powerful medieval state centered in Kyiv. Over time, Church Slavonic absorbed influences from local dialects, leading to the emergence of the Old Ukrainian language.
Church Slavonic retained its dominance in religious spheres, while Old Ukrainian gradually developed as the language of state affairs and cultural expression.
This period saw the creation of literary masterpieces in Old Ukrainian, including "Ruska Pravda," "The Primary Chronicle," "The Tale of Igor's Campaign," and "The Testament of Volodymyr Monomakh."
Despite Russification efforts following Muscovy's and later the Russian Empire's control over parts of Ukraine, the Ukrainian language continued to evolve. The 18th century saw the emergence of modern Ukrainian literary language, rooted in the vernacular vivid language of Ukrainians.
Ivan Kotlyarevsky's "Eneida" (1798) is considered its foundational work, with other writers such as Petro Hulak-Artemovsky, Yevhen Hrebinka, and Hryhorii Kvitka-Osnovyanenko. His work was further developed by incorporating colloquial and folkloric elements.
Taras Shevchenko's contributions were crucial in shaping the modern Ukrainian literary language, with his legacy carried forward by writers such as Ivan Franko, Lesya Ukrainka, Panas Myrny, and Mykhailo Kotsyubynsky.
The development of Ukrainian literary language bears a striking resemblance to that of Italian. Much like Ukrainian, the Italian literary language emerged from a vernacular source - the Florentine dialect - rather than from Latin, the official language of the church. This process was reinforced through the works of literary giants such as Dante Alighieri, Francesco Petrarca, and Giovanni Boccaccio.
16-18th centuries were marked by the development of Ukrainian literature in the Latin language. It was driven by the need for theological debate and Latin instruction at institutions such as the Kyiv Academy, Pereyaslav Seminary, and Kharkiv Collegium.
Latin-language literature had a number of specific features and served as another tool of expression for the writers, but there were no exclusively Lantin-language writers among Ukrainians.
Many Ukrainian Latin-language works were handwritten textbooks on poetics, philosophy, and theology. Notable examples include Theofan Prokopovych's "Poetics," Stefan Yavorsky's "The Stone of Faith," and Adam Zernikau's "De processione Spiritus Sancti." There are examples of Latin poems by Hryhoriy Skovoroda.
Equally significant are the contributions of prominent figures such as Herasym and Meletiy Smotrytsky, Lavrentiy Zyzaniy, and Pamvo Berynda, who enriched Ukrainian literature with their Latin writings.
Latin-language letters, like those of the 150 letters of Hryhoriy Skovoroda, were another literary example of this literature. They exemplified Baroque literary traditions.
Secular Latin literature included panegyrics, wedding praises, and posthumous glorifications, often combining poetry and prose (prosimetrum) and reflecting Renaissance anthropocentrism.
The Polish language significantly influenced Ukrainian literature in the 16th century after the Union of Lublin, when parts of Ukraine fell under Polish control.
The Ukrainian language in those areas began to change, incorporating Polish and other European words, and the tendencies toward the Polonization of Ukrainian culture emerged.
Polemical writings made up the majority of Ukrainian literature in Polish during this time.
This literature emerged in response to the 1596 Union of Brest, which sought to unite the Eastern Orthodox Church in Ukraine with the Roman Catholic Church. This union resulted in the creation of the Greek Catholic Church.
Key characteristics of this polemical literature include a strong defense of Orthodox traditions and an emphasis on religious identity and cultural autonomy, as exemplified by works such as “Apokrisis” by Christophor Philaleth and “Threnos” by Meletius Smotrytsky.
The 19th century, marked by Romanticism, became a landmark period for Ukrainian literature in Polish. During this period, interest in Ukrainian national history and folklore surged.
Polish writers of Ukrainian origin, including the likes of Józef Bohdan Zaleski, Antoni Malczewski, and Seweryn Goszczyński, incorporated Ukrainian themes into their works, creating a hybrid cultural narrative.
This blending of Polish literary forms with Ukrainian content helped preserve Ukrainian folklore and traditions when Ukrainian language and culture were under pressure.
The interwar period was another milestone era for Ukrainian literature in Polish. It provided a space for exploring themes of identity, belonging, and cultural conflict, playing a crucial role in shaping the dialogue between Polish and Ukrainian cultures.
Prominent figures of this period included Józef Łobodowski, a Polish poet of Ukrainian origin, who reflected on the struggles of Ukrainian identity and the tensions between Polish and Ukrainian communities, and Stanisław Vincenz, known for his epic cycle "On the High Uplands", which captures the life and culture of the Hutsuls, a Ukrainian highlander group.
A vivid aspect of Ukrainian literature in other languages was Yiddish literature, with a brief yet bright existence in Ukrainian territories, reaching its peak in the 19th century.
Its founder and greatest master was Solomon Rabinovich, born in the Pereyaslav (modern Kyiv Oblast), who entered literature under the pseudonym Sholem Aleichem.
The specificity of Ukrainian Yiddish literature lay in its heroes, narrative tone, and connection with peculiar Jewish settlements - shtetls. Its characters were residents of Ukrainian Jewish towns - poor Jews harassed by the regime yet not devoid of a subtle Jewish humor.
This literature was rich with various Jewish dialects and Ukrainianisms, including borrowings from the Ukrainian language and expressions - a peculiarity of Sholem Aleichem's works.
The revolution in the Russian Empire activated the political, cultural, and literary life of the Jewish community in Ukrainian territories. The Ukrainian People’s Republic set a precendent by introducing education and publishing in Yiddish,and even had a Ministry of Jewish Affairs.
Literary contacts were established between Ukrainian and Jewish writers, with active participants including Mykola Bazhan and Mykola Khvylovy on the Ukrainian side, and Ivan Kulyk and Isaac Feffer on the Jewish side.
However,WWII and Stalin's repressions brought an end to the flourishing of Jewish literature in Ukraine. The Holocaust and later Stalin’s repressions annihilated the flower of Jewish literature.
Stalin’s regime, in particular, killed prominent poets like Feffer, Lev Kvitko, Peretz Markish, David Hofstein, and David Bergelson.
As it was later claimed, Hitler killed the readers of Yiddish literature, and Stalin killed the writers.
*Literature in Crimean Tatar
Crimean Tatar literature has deep roots dating back to the 13th century. Its heyday came during the period of the Crimean Khanate when palace poetry flourished. After the Russian annexation of Crimea in 1783, a long period of decline ensued.
The revival began in the late 19th century, owing primarily to the efforts of Ismail Gasprinsky, a reformer and publisher who advocated for modernization and education through his influential newspaper Terciman.
Among other significant literary figures were Bekir Çobanzade, a poet and linguist whose works often celebrate Tatar heritage and identity, or Cengiz Dağcı renowned for his novels written in Turkish, depicting the hardships and resilience of the Crimean Tatar people.
You can learn more in our upcoming article on Crimean Tatar literature.
*Ukrainian literature in Russian
In the 19th century, the Russian Empire imposed severe restrictions on the Ukrainian language, culminating in its prohibition from public use between 1863 and 1905. This suppression paradoxically led to the development of Ukrainian cultural production in Russian.
Despite writing in Russian, prominent authors such as Panteleimon Kulish, Mykola Kostomarov, Marko Vovchok, and Mykhailo Drahomanov significantly contributed to the development of Ukrainian national identity.
Mykola Gogol, a renowned 19th-century writer of Ukrainian origin who greatly influenced Russian literature, is also an important and complex figure in this phenomenon.
The diversity of languages in Ukrainian literature reflects the nation's complex cultural tapestry, blending various linguistic influences into a rich literary tradition. This multilingual heritage highlights the resilience and adaptability of Ukrainian literature, continuously evolving despite historical challenges.
